the meaning of financial risk
at "small and medium-sized financial risk assessment and control of research" that the financial risk is the possibility of corporate insolvency and shareholders, the proceeds of uncertainty, it is difficult because of enterprise funds, to adopt a different mode of financing brought about by risk.
Starting from the analysis of financial risk on its meaning, characteristics and types of content; at this based on the causes of the financial risk to conduct in-depth analysis and detailed research, analysis concludes that the financial risks arising from internal factors and external aspects; in turn, establish a risk awareness, the establishment of an effective risk prevention mechanism; set up and improve the financial management system to meet the financial management of environmental change; set up the financial risk early warning mechanism, strengthen the financial crisis management; improve the scientific level of financial decision-making to prevent due to poor decisions arising from the financial risk; through internal systems to prevent the establishment of binding mechanisms to control and guard against financial risk in five areas of financial risk prevention measures as well as self-insurance, diversification of risk control, risk transfer, risk averse, risk reducing the five techniques. Only controlled enterprises to guard against and defuse financial risks, in order to ensure that enterprises in the fierce competition in the market in an invincible position.
The causes of the financial risks
(A) external causes
the national policy changes brought about by the financing risk. Generally speaking, small and medium-sized production and operation because of instability. A country's economy or monetary policy changes, there may be small and medium-sized production and management, market conditions and financing forms have a certain impact. Beginning in 2007, our country has increased the intensity of macroeconomic regulation and control, the central bank to raise the fourth time the deposit reserve ratio, in particular, are ready to implement the difference between a direct deposit system to make small and medium-sized service-oriented small and medium-sized commercial banks to tighten credit, SMEs First of all, the capital supply disruption, the risk of inviting a lot of financing, SMEs also in urgent need of funds can not be forced to stop production or the scale of downsizing. 2, bank financing channels for non-financial risks caused by fluid. Corporate sources of funds are nothing more than its own funds and external financing in two ways. In various modes of financing, the bank credit is also an important source of funds, but banks in the country's financial policies as well as their own sound system is not under the influence of such circumstances, the general enthusiasm for SME lending is not high, their loans more difficult to increase the the enterprise's financial risk.
(B) internal factors one, blind expansion of investment scale. There is a considerable number of conditions are not ripe for the SMEs in the circumstances, only the experience of one-sided pursuit of companies to determine the expansion of the extension, ignore the company's content and core competitiveness, resulting in a major capital investment wasted. 2, the investment decision-making errors. For business, the correct selection of industries are the starting point for the survival and development strategy. However, some industrial enterprises in the selection process, the often overlooked "industry is a dynamic selection process" concept, should not a keen grasp of industry trends and direction of evolution. 3, improper selection of investment partners. Enterprises to make investment decisions, we must give full consideration to qualified partners, reputation, and should have to bear the corresponding risks. 4, less than honest. Lack of SME credit is a common situation. Therefore, small and medium-sized banks to provide loans or investments to small and medium-sized people had to step up investment on human resources in order to improve the quality of information collection and analysis. This respect has increased the investment bank or person lending and investment costs. On the other hand also give small and medium enterprises financing difficult. Ability to finance capital, to finance the number of funds, the financing of SMEs exist great uncertainties.
求一篇关于审计风险的外文文献(要有原文和译文及作者出处)浅析内部审计风险的成因及解决途径
要] 内部审计风险成因包括内部审计机构的独立性不够，内部审计人员的业务不精，内部审计方法的科学性不强，内部审计管理的制度不健全。为了降低内部审计风险，应加强内部审计的法制建设，保证内部审计的独立性，提高内部审计人员的素质，执行科学合理的审计工作程序，正确处理降低风险与经济效益的关系，开展以风险为导向的风险基础审计。
[关键词] 审计 风险 管理
内部审计风险包括固有风险和控制风险。固有风险是指在假定与内部会计控制无关的情况下，被审计单位整体财务报表和各账户余额或某项业务发生重大差错的可能性，即由于被审计单位经济业务的特点和会计核算工作本身的不足而形成的审计风险。如某些企业缺乏对会计制度应有的重视，账户体系庞杂、会计信息明晰性降低，报表利用困难，成本、费用缺乏成本核算概念等。控制风险是指由于被审单位内部控制制度不够健全完善，内部控制行为不力，不能及时发现和纠正某个账户或某种业务中的重大错误而形成的审计风险。有时即使审计人员确认被审计单位的内部控制制度不合理或在关键环节上失控，其提出的修正建议能否真正适合被审计单位的经营活动，也会形成一种修正风险。
内部审计风险形成的原因
内部审计机构的独立性不够
内部审计机构是单位内设机构，在单位负责人的领导下开展工作，为单位服务。因此，内部审计的独立性不如社会审计，在审计过程中，不可避免地受本单位的利益制约。内审人员面临的是与单位领导层之间的领导与被领导的关系以及与各科室、部门之间的同事关系，所涉及的人不是领导就是同事，非直接有关也是间接相关，审计过程及结论必然涉及到具体的个人利益，因而审计过程难免受到各类人员干扰。
内部审计人员的业务不精
审计人员素质的高低是决定审计风险大小的主要因素。审计人员的素质包括从事审计需要的政策法规水平、专业知识、经验、技能、审计职业道德和工作责任。
审计经验是审计人员应有的一种重要技能，审计经验需要实践的积累。我国的内部审计人员中不少人仅熟悉财务会计业务，一些审计人员不了解本单位的经营活动和内部控制，审计经验有限。另外，内部审计人员工作责任和职业道德也是影响审计风险的因素。由于我国内审准则工作规范和职业道德标准方面还有一些空白，许多内审机构和人员缺乏应有的职业规范的约束和指导。总之，目前我国内审人员总体素质偏低，直接影响到内审工作开展的深度和广度。面对当今内审对象的复杂和内容的拓展，内审人员势单力簿，这将直接导致审计风险的产生。
内部审计方法的科学性不强
我国内审方法是制度基础审计，随着企业内部经营管理环境复杂化，这种审计模式不适应开展内部管理审计的需要，因为它过分依赖于对企业内部管理控制的测试，本身就蕴藏巨大的风险内部审计一般采用统计抽样方法，由于抽样审计本身是以样本的审查结果来推断总体的特征，因此，样本和总体之间必然会形成一定的误差，形成审计的抽样风险。随着信息化程度提高，被审计单位的会计信息资料会越来越多，差错和虚假的会计资料掺杂其中，失察的可能性也随之加大。虽然统计抽样是建立在坚实的数学理论基础之上，但其本身是允许存在一定的审计风险的。同样，大量的分析性审核也会产生相关风险，使审计风险的构成内容更为复杂。
内部审计管理的制度不健全
内部审计管理的制度建设及执行情况是内部审计的前提和基础。健全有效的内部管理制度能及时发现和控制企业经济活动中发生的各种差错和舞弊。为保证内部审计质量，内审组织应建立完善的质量控制制度，但是，部分审计机构至今仍缺少事前的审计计划、事中的审计程序和报告期的审计复核；审计工作底稿不完整，一般仅记录审计问题事项，而未记录审计人员认为正确的审计事项，使得审计复核、审计质量控制无从入手；审计报告以协调关系为出发点，以肯定工作成绩为基调，问题定性模棱两可。以上现状的存在，使得保证内部审计质量成为一句空话，更谈不上防范风险。
降低内部审计风险的途径
加强内部审计的法制建设
完善和健全审计法规体系是内部审计风险控制的基础措施。审计规范是审计人员的行为规范和工作准则，不仅可以控制和减少审计风险，而且也是衡量审计人员法律责任的标准。我国内部审计起步较晚，与西方国家相比，在相关制度建设上存在着许多不完善的地方。为了适应现代内部审计不断发展的要求，就必须加强审计工作法制化、规范化建设，尽量减少审计工作的盲目性和随意性。
保证内部审计的独立性
独立性可以使内部审计师提出公正的和不偏不倚的专业判断，这对审计工作的恰当开展是必不可少的。内部审计机构独立性的内涵应主要表现为形式上的独立和实质上的独立两方面。形式上的独立要求内部审计在组织内具有较高的组织地位，内部审计师的工作应能够获得高级管理层和董事会的支持。实质上的独立是指内部审计人员在精神上必须保持必要的独立性，应以公正的态度，避免利益冲突，在开展内部审计工作时，保持诚实的信念，遵守职业道德准则，在整个审计过程中不做出重大的妥协。
提高内部审计人员的素质
审计人员是审计工作的具体执行者，其业务素质的高低直接关系到审计项目质量的好坏和审计风险的大小。因此，提高审计人员的素质，对控制和防范审计风险，提高审计质量起着根本性作用。首先，应加强内审人员政治素质教育和能力的培养，树立内审人员一丝不苟的工作精神和扎扎实实的工作作风，对其进行定期与不定期的培训，使其具备与其工作相适应的高尚品质，高度的事业心、责任感以及处理问题的能力；二是要引导审计人员通过工作实践，及时总结内审工作经验，不断完善审计手段和方法，不断提高运用理论知识解决实际问题的本领和应对复杂多变的工作局面的能力；三是要在进一步完善审计队伍准入制度，实行执证上岗的基础上，建立科学的激励机制，充分调动审计人员的积极性，激发其爱岗敬业的热情，使审计工作队伍在稳定的基础上不断发展壮大；四是要加强审计人员的业务培训和继续教育，使他们能熟练掌握审计的基本知识、基本技能和基本方法，熟悉会计、经济管理、经济法规等相关知识，提高内审人员的审计查证能力，以适应新形势的需要。
执行科学合理的审计工作程序
科学的审计程序是圆满完成各项审计任务、降低审计风险的重要手段。从审计任务的下达和审计工作方案的编制，到实施审计、编制审计工作底稿、出具审计报告整个工作流程必须有一套规范的程序。在实施审计的工作中，要充分运用现代的及成熟的审计技术方法。从审计组提交审计报告到作出审计决定阶段应有完善的“把关”程序。要抓好执法检查和廉政回访工作，要检查审计人员在审计活动中，证据收集是否齐全，程序是否符合要要求，决定是否合法，发现问题要及时进行补救和纠正。审计人员应严格按照程序操作一环扣一环，并且对每个环节进行控制，将审计风险隐患消灭在审计的各个环节。
正确处理降低风险与经济效益的关系
审计风险可以控制但不能完全消除，如果一味降低审计风险，就可能违背成本效益原则。因此，在接受审计任务时，要认真评价被审计单位的风险程度，高风险单位应该选派经验丰富，解决问题能力强的人员，并适当延长审计时间，而对低风险单位可以投入较少的人力，物力和时间，这样就能使降低审计风险、提高效率和降低成本三者统一起来。
开展以风险为导向的风险基础审计
风险基础审计是通过对审计风险进行系统的分析和评价，来确定审计风险是否可以控制在可以接受的范围内。它主要运用分析性复核的方法，不仅对客户的控制风险进行评价，同时更要对产生风险的各个要素进行分析和评价，以确定实质性测试的范围和重点。这样就使审计风险与整个审计过程密切联系起来，以风险的分析与控制为出发点，以保证审计质量为前提，统筹运用符合性测试、实质性测试、分析性检查等方法，综合各种审计证据，以控制审计风险。近年来，风险基础审计在世界各国已广泛应用，其原因就在于它从审计准备阶段开始就考虑审计风险。我国内部审计也应尽快实现向这种审计模式的过渡，以提高审计质量。
参考文献：
嘉:试论内部审计与内部控制的关系.消费导刊，2008.2:84
[2]范太艳等:浅议内部审计的咨询服务职能.网络财富，2008.06:52～53
琳:内部审计:风险管理的抓手.中国石油企业，2007.12:31～33
莉:企业内部审计风险分析与规避对策.商业会计，2008.12:46～47
菁:降低内部审计风险的途径.西安建筑科技大学学报，2008.02:17～20
[5]张孝兰等:内部审计的风险与防范对策.乐山师范学院学报，2007.08:52～53
[6]周丽琼:企业内部审计的风险管理.企业家天地，2007.10:77～80
Analysis of the causes of internal audit risk and its solution
[Abstract] internal audit risk factors include the independence of internal audit bodies enough, the internal audit staff ill-equipped business, internal audit of the scientific method is not strong, internal audit management systems. In order to reduce the risk of internal audit, internal audit should strengthen the legal system, guarantee the independence of internal audit, internal audit staff to improve the quality of the audit of the implementation of scientific and rational work processes, reduce risks and to correctly handle the relationship between economic efficiency and conduct a risk - oriented risk-based audit.
words]Audit,Risk,Risk
Internal audit risks include the inherent risks and control risks. The inherent risks is the assumption that has nothing to do with internal accounting controls, the units being audited financial statements and the overall balance of the account of a business or the possibility of a major error, that is caused by the audit unit economic characteristics of business and accounting work itself the formation of the lack of audit risk. Some enterprises such as the lack of due attention to the accounting system, account system complex, reducing clarity of accounting information, reports, use of difficulty, cost, cost of lack of cost accounting concepts. Control risk refers to as a result of inadequate internal control system被审单位perfect, weak internal control behavior, not timely detection and correction of a business account or a major error in the formation of audit risk. Sometimes, even if the auditors audited units to confirm the internal control system is unreasonable or out of control in key areas, the amendments proposed by the audit can really suitable for operating activities, but will also create a risk amendment.
First, the internal audit risk causes
The independence of the internal audit agency enough
Internal audit body is set up units in institutions, in the unit under the leadership of the responsible persons to work as a unit of service. Therefore, the independence of internal audit as social audit, the audit process, inevitably affected the interests of the unit constraints. OIA staff faced with the unit leadership was among the leadership and the leadership of the relationship, as well as with various sections, the relationship between colleagues, people are not involved in the leadership of my colleagues is, non-directly related to also indirectly related to the audit process and conclusions will inevitably involve the interests of specific individuals, which inevitably affected the audit process for all categories of personnel interference.
Internal audit operations personnel ill-equipped
quality of auditors is to determine the size of audit risk factors. The quality of the audit including those engaged in the audit of the policies and regulations need to level of expertise, experience, skills, audit professional ethics and work responsibilities.
Audit experience, the audit staff should have an important skill, the need for the audit practice of the accumulation of experience. China's internal audit staff, many people only familiar with the financial and accounting operations, some auditors do not understand the business activities of this unit and internal controls, audit limited experience. In addition, the internal audit staff responsibilities and professional ethics is the impact of audit risk factors. Because of China's internal guidelines for the work of norms and ethical standards still some gaps, and many internal organs and personnel lack of occupational norms bound and guidance. In short, China's overall quality of the low OIA staff and directly affected the internal audit work carried out by the depth and breadth. Faced with the complexity of today's OIA object and content development, internal audit staff and powerful single force book, which will directly lead to the selection of audit risk.
Internal audit of the scientific method is not strong
China's system of internal audit is the basis of the audit, with the internal operation and management of environmental complicated models are not suited to carry out this audit internal management audit of the needs, because it is overly dependent on the internal management of enterprises controlled test, in itself a huge potential the risk of internal audit generally use statistical sampling methods, as a result of the sample itself is based on a sample audit of the results of the review can be inferred from the general characteristics, therefore, between the samples and the overall form is bound to a certain degree of error, the formation of audit sampling risk. With the degree of information technology improved, the audited accounting information will be more and more errors and false accounting information doped them, and failed to investigate the possibility of also increasing. Although the survey sample is built on the solid foundation of mathematical theory, but its existence is to allow a certain degree of audit risk. Similarly, a large number of analytical review will also have associated risks, so that the composition of the contents of audit risk is more complicated.
Internal Audit management systems
Internal audit management system construction and implementation of internal audit is the prerequisite and foundation. Sound and effective internal management system to detect and control of enterprise economic activity occurring in a variety of errors and fraud. To ensure the quality of internal audit, internal audit organizations should establish a perfect quality control system, however, some audit institutions still lack of prior audit plan, a matter of auditing procedures and audit review of the reporting period; the audit working papers incomplete, generally only Records of audit matters, not the recording of audit staff that the correct audit matters, making the audit review, audit quality control no way; to coordinate the relationship between the audit report as a starting point to certain performance-based, qualitative ambiguous issues. More than the existence of the status quo, making the internal audit quality assurance become an empty talk, let alone ward off risks.
Second, reduce the risk of internal audit ways
Strengthen the internal audit of the legal system
Improve and perfect the legal system for the audit of internal audit is the basis of risk control measures. Audit norms, the audit staff code of conduct and guidelines, not only to control and reduce audit risk, but also to measure auditors liability standards. China's internal audit late start compared with Western countries in the relevant system-building there are many imperfections. In order to adapt to the continuous development of modern internal audit requirements, it is necessary to strengthen the audit work of legalization and standardization construction to minimize the audit work of blindness and randomness.
To ensure the independence of internal audit
independence of the internal auditor can make a fair and impartial professional judgment, which is appropriate to carry out the audit work is essential. The independence of internal audit bodies connotation should be reflected mainly in the form of independence and de facto independence in two ways. Formal independence requirements of internal audit in the organization of organizations with high status, the internal auditor should have access to senior management and board of directors support. Essentially refers to an independent internal audit staff in the spirit of the need to maintain the necessary independence, should be a fair and just manner and avoid conflicts of interest, in carrying out internal audit work, to maintain an honest belief in compliance with the Code of Ethics for the entire audit process does not make a significant compromise.
References:
[1]Qiu Jia: On the internal audit and internal control relationship. Consumer Guide, 2008.2:84
[2]Fan Wen-Yan ,etc: On the internal audit function of the advisory services. Network wealth 2008.06:52 ~ 53
Duan Lin: Internal Audit: Risk Management grasps. China's oil companies, 2007.12:31 ~ 33
Liu Li: Corporate Internal Audit Risk Analysis and Countermeasures to circumvent. Commercial accounting, 2008.12:46 ~ 47
Zhao Qing: Reduce the risk of internal audit ways. Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology Journal, 2008.02:17 ~ 20
[5]Zhang Xiao-Lan,etc: internal audit risks and preventive measures. Leshan Teachers College Journal, 2007.08:52 ~ 53
[6]Zhou Li-Qiong: enterprise internal audit risk management. Entrepreneurs world, 2007.10:77 ~ 80
仅供参考，请自借鉴
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补充：
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我需要一篇外文文献及翻译！关于企业财务风险防范的内容！要求字数达标、有外国作者的名字和出处。一共两篇 ，希望对楼主有用
什么是财务风险
财务风险是企业在财务管理过程中必须面对的一个现实问题，财务风险是客观存在的，企业管理者对财务风险只有采取有效措施来降低风险，而不可能完全消除风险。文章通过对企业财务风险类型分析，从中找出不同财务风险产生的具体原因，并试图探索出解决各类财务风险的有效方法。
当今世界上因财务风险而倒闭破产的公司，甚至是特大公司也不为少见，如2002年世界500强的安然就是一例。因此，忽视财务风险将给我们带来的后果是严重的。
财务风险的定义和基本类型
财务风险是指企业在各项财务活动中由于各种难以预料和无法控制的因素，使企业在一定时期、一定范围内所获取的最终财务成果与预期的经营目标发生偏差，从而形成的使企业蒙受经济损失或更大收益的可能性。企业的财务活动贯穿于生产经营的整个过程中，筹措资金、长短期投资、分配利润等都可能产生风险。
根据风险的来源可以将财务风险划分为：
筹资风险
筹资风险指的是由于资金供需市场、宏观经济环境的变化，企业筹集资金给财务成果带来的不确定性。筹资风险主要包括利率风险、再融资风险、财务杠杆效应、汇率风险、购买力风险等。利率风险是指由于金融市场金融资产的波动而导致筹资成本的变动；再融资风险是指由于金融市场上金融工具品种、融资方式的变动，导致企业再次融资产生不确定性，或企业本身筹资结构的不合理导致再融资产生困难；财务杠杆效应是指由于企业使用杠杆融资给利益相关者的利益带来不确定性；汇率风险是指由于汇率变动引起的企业外汇业务成果的不确定性；购买力风险是指由于币值的变动给筹资带来的影响。
投资风险
投资风险指企业投入一定资金后，因市场需求变化而影响最终收益与预期收益偏离的风险。企业对外投资主要有直接投资和证券投资两种形式。在我国，根据公司法的规定，股东拥有企业股权的25%以上应该视为直接投资。证券投资主要有股票投资和债券投资两种形式。股票投资是风险共担，利益共享的投资形式；债券投资与被投资企业的财务活动没有直接关系，只是定期收取固定的利息，所面临的是被投资者无力偿还债务的风险。投资风险主要包括利率风险、再投资风险、汇率风险、通货膨胀风险、金融衍生工具风险、道德风险、违约风险等。
经营风险
经营风险又称营业风险，是指在企业的生产经营过程中，供、产、销各个环节不确定性因素的影响所导致企业资金运动的迟滞，产生企业价值的变动。经营风险主要包括采购风险、生产风险、存货变现风险、应收账款变现风险等。采购风险是指由于原材料市场供应商的变动而产生的供应不足的可能，以及由于信用条件与付款方式的变动而导致实际付款期限与平均付款期的偏离；生产风险是指由于信息、能源、技术及人员的变动而导致生产工艺流程的变化，以及由于库存不足所导致的停工待料或销售迟滞的可能；存货变现风险是指由于产品市场变动而导致产品销售受阻的可能；应收账款变现风险是指由于赊销业务过多导致应收账款管理成本增大的可能性，以及由于赊销政策的改变导致实际回收期与预期回收的偏离等。
存货管理风险
企业保持一定量的存货对于其进行正常生产来说是至关重要的，但如何确定最优库存量是一个比较棘手的问题，存货太多会导致产品积压，占用企业资金，风险较高；存货太少又可能导致原料供应不及时，影响企业的正常生产，严重时可能造成对客户的违约，影响企业的信誉。
流动性风险
流动性风险是指企业资产不能正常和确定性地转移现金或企业债务和付现责任不能正常履行的可能性。从这个意义上来说，可以把企业的流动性风险从企业的变现力和偿付能力两方面分析与评价。由于企业支付能力和偿债能力发生的问题，称为现金不足及现金不能清偿风险。由于企业资产不能确定性地转移为现金而发生的问题则称为变现力风险。
企业财务风险的成因
企业财务风险产生的原因很多，既有企业外部的原因，也有企业自身的原因，而且不同的财务风险形成的具体原因也不尽相同。企业产生财务风险的一般原因有以下几点：
企业财务管理宏观环境的复杂性是企业产生财务风险的外部原因。企业财务管理的宏观环境复杂多变，而企业管理系统不能适应复杂多变的宏观环境。财务管理的宏观环境包括经济环境、法律环境、市场环境、社会文化环境、资源环境等因素，这些因素存在企业之外，但对企业财务管理产生重大的影响。
企业财务管理人员对财务风险的客观性认识不足。财务风险是客观存在的，只要有财务活动，就必然存在着财务风险。然而在现实工作中，许多企业的财务管理人员缺乏风险意识。风险意识的淡薄是财务风险产生的重要原因之一。
财务决策缺乏科学性导致决策失误。财务决策失误是产生财务风险的又一主要原因。避免财务决策失误的前提是财务决策的科学化。
企业内部财务关系不明。这是企业产生财务风险的又一重要原因，企业与内部各部门之间及企业与上级企业之间，在资金管理及使用、利益分配等方面存在权责不明、管理不力的现象，造成资金使用效率低下，资金流失严重，资金的安全性、完整性无法得到保证。这主要存在于一些上市公司的财务关系中，很多集团公司母公司与子公司的财务关系十分混乱，资金使用没有有效的监督与控制。
化解财务风险的主要措施
企业财务风险是客观存在的，因此安全消除财务风险是不可能的，也是不现实的。对于企业财务风险，只能采取尽可能的措施，将其影响降低到最低的程度。
化解筹资风险的主要措施：
当企业的经营业务发生资金不足的困难时，可以采取发行股票、发行债券或银行借款等方式来筹集所需资本。
化解投资风险的主要措施：
从风险防范的角度来看，投资风险主要应该通过控制投资期限、投资品种来降低。一般来说，投资期越长，风险就大，因此企业应该尽量选择短期投资。而在进行证券投资的时候，应该采取分散投资的策略，选择若干种股票组成投资组合，通过组合中风险的相互抵消来降低风险。在对股票投资进行风险分析中，可以采用β系数的分析方法或资本资产定价模型来确定不同证券组合的风险。β系数小于1，说明它的风险小于整个市场的平均风险，因而是风险较小的投资对象。
化解汇率风险的主要措施：
（1）选择恰当合同货币。在有关对外贸易和借贷等经济交易中，选择何种货币作为计价货币直接关系到交易主体是否将承担汇率风险。为了避免汇率风险，企业应该争取使用本国货币作为合同货币，在出品、资本输出时使用硬通货，而在进口、资本输入时使用软通货。同时在合同中加列保值条款等措施。
（2）通过在金融市场进行保值操作。主要方法有现汇交易、期货交易、期汇交易、期权交易、借款与投资、利率—货币互换、外币票据贴现等。
（3）对于经济主体在资产负债表会计处理过程中产生的折算风险，一般是实行资产负债表保值来化解。这种方法要求在资产负债表上以各种功能货币表示的受险资产与受险负债的数额相等，从而使其折算风险头寸为零，只有这样，汇率变动才不致带来折算上的损失。
（4）经营多样化。即在国际范围内分散其销售、生产地及原材料来源地，通过国际经营的多样化，当汇率出现变化时，管理部门可以通过比较不同地区生产、销售和成本的变化趋利避害，增加在汇率变化有利的分支机构的生产，而减少汇率变化不利的分支机构的生产。
（5）财务多样化。即在多个金融市场以多种货币寻求资金的来源和资金去向，实行筹资多样化和投资多样化，这样在有的外币贬值，有的外币升值的情况下，公司就可以使绝大部分的外汇风险相互抵消，从而达到防范风险的目的。
化解流动性风险的主要措施：
企业的流动性较强的资产主要包括现金、存货、应收账款等项目。防范流动性风险的目的是在保持资产流动性的前提下，实现利益的最大化。因此应该确定最优的现金持有量、最佳的库存量以及加快应收账款的回收等。我们都很清楚持有现金有一个时间成本的问题，手中持有现金过多，显然会由于较高的资金占用而失去其他的获利机会，而持有现金太少，又会面临资金不能满足流动性需要的风险。因此企业应该确定一个最优的现金持有量，从而在防范流动性风险的前提下实现利益的最大化。
化解经营风险的主要措施：
在其他因素不变的情况下，市场对企业产品的需求越稳定，企业未来的经营收益就越确定，经营风险也就越小。因此企业在确定生产何种产品时，应先对产品市场做好调研，要生产适销对路的产品，销售价格是产品销售收入的决定因素之一，销售价格越稳定，销售收入就越稳定，企业未来的经营收益就越稳定，经营风险也就越小。
The Infrared Technology as the humanity knew that the nature, the exploration natural one kind of new modern tool, has been applied generally by various countries in the biology, the medicine, the geoscience and so on scientific field as well as the military reconnaissance aspect. But is very complex as a result of the goal infrared radiation, the factor are many, the infrared hot image's clarity is inferior to the visible image far, but people in use infrared hot chart analysis question time, hoped frequently simultaneously sees the visible light information and the infrared information. As the computer vision domain and an image understanding's important technology, the image fusion simultaneously observed the infrared hot information and the visible light information for the people have provided an effective method. This article research mainly take the infrared imagery and the visible light image as the information processing goal, through will carry on the contrastive analysis to each image fusion processing method, will summarize an effect good method, will then use with the matlab procedure to realize these methods and to carry on the comparison again to the fusion effect. this article first introduced the image fusion engineering research background and the domestic and foreign research tendency. Then introduced the image fusion's basic concept, the level, have made the comparison to each level's fusion. Then introduced the image fusion's Pyramid algorithm, and has carried on the analysis, the comparison to these algorithms, finally the matlab procedure has realized these methods. as a result of the wavelet transformation in the information analysis and the information processing domain's good performance, this article used the great length to introduce that the wavelet the knowledge, realized the image fusion with the fusion effect good small wave packet's method, through used the objective indicator the appraisal to prove based on the small wave packet's fusion was one very good fusion method. key word: Image fusion, wavelet transformation Pyramid algorithm, multi-resolution analysis, fusion rule, fusion appraisal
从分析财务风险入手，阐述其含义、特征以及种类等内容；在此基础上对财务风险产生的原因进行深入细致的分析研究，分析总结出财务风险产生的内因和外因诸方面；从而提出树立风险意识，建立有效的风险防范机制；建立和完善财务管理系统，以适应财务管理环境变化；建立财务风险预警机制，加强财务危机管理；提高财务决策的科学化水平，防止因决策失误而产生的财务风险；通过防范内部制度，建立约束机制来控制和防范财务风险五个方面的财务风险防范措施以及自我保险、多元化风险控制、风险转移、风险回避、风险降低五种技术方法。只有控制防范和化解企业财务风险，才能确保企业在激烈的市场竞争中立于不败之地。
财务风险的成因
（一）外部原因
国家政策的变化带来的融资风险。一般而言，由于中小企业生产经营不稳定。一国经济或金融政策的变化，都有可能对中小企业生产经营、市场环境和融资形式产生一定的影响。从2007 年开始，我国加大了对宏观经济的调控力度，央行第四次提高存款准备金率，尤其是实行差额准备金制度使直接面向中小企业服务的中小商业银行信贷收紧，中小企业的资金供给首先受阻，融资风险徒增不少，中小企业也因无法得到急需资金而被迫停产或收缩经营规模。2、银行融资渠道不流畅造成的融资风险。企业资金来源无非是自有资金和对外融资两种方式。在各种融资方式中，银行信贷又是重要的资金来源，但是银行在国家金融政策以及自身体制不健全等情况的影响下，普遍对中小企业贷款积极性不高，使其贷款难度加大，增加了企业的财务风险。
（二）内部原因1、盲目扩张投资规模。有相当一部分的中小企业在条件不成熟的情况下，仅凭经验判断片面追求公司外延的扩大，忽略了公司内涵和核心竞争力，造成投资时资金的重大浪费。2、投资决策失误。对企业来说，正确的产业选择是生存发展的战略起点。但一些企业在选择产业过程中，往往忽视了“产业选择是一个动态过程”的观念，不能敏锐地把握产业演变的趋势和方向。3、投资合作伙伴选择不当。企业在做出投资决策时，一定要充分考虑合作伙伴的资质、信誉，并应具备承担相应风险能力。4、诚信不足。中小企业信用不足是一个普遍现象。因此，银行要向中小企业提供贷款或投资人要向中小企业进行投资就不得不加大人力资源的投入以提高信息的收集和质量分析。这一方面加大了银行或投资人的贷款和投资成本。另一方面也给中小企业的融资带来困难。能否融通到资金，能融通到多少资金，中小企业的融资存在很大的不确性。
the meaning of financial risk
at "small and medium-sized financial risk assessment and control of research" that the financial risk is the possibility of corporate insolvency and shareholders, the proceeds of uncertainty, it is difficult because of enterprise funds, to adopt a different mode of financing brought about by risk.
Starting from the analysis of financial risk on its meaning, characteristics and types of content; at this based on the causes of the financial risk to conduct in-depth analysis and detailed research, analysis concludes that the financial risks arising from internal factors and external aspects; in turn, establish a risk awareness, the establishment of an effective risk prevention mechanism; set up and improve the financial management system to meet the financial management of environmental change; set up the financial risk early warning mechanism, strengthen the financial crisis management; improve the scientific level of financial decision-making to prevent due to poor decisions arising from the financial risk; through internal systems to prevent the establishment of binding mechanisms to control and guard against financial risk in five areas of financial risk prevention measures as well as self-insurance, diversification of risk control, risk transfer, risk averse, risk reducing the five techniques. Only controlled enterprises to guard against and defuse financial risks, in order to ensure that enterprises in the fierce competition in the market in an invincible position.
The causes of the financial risks
(A) external causes
the national policy changes brought about by the financing risk. Generally speaking, small and medium-sized production and operation because of instability. A country's economy or monetary policy changes, there may be small and medium-sized production and management, market conditions and financing forms have a certain impact. Beginning in 2007, our country has increased the intensity of macroeconomic regulation and control, the central bank to raise the fourth time the deposit reserve ratio, in particular, are ready to implement the difference between a direct deposit system to make small and medium-sized service-oriented small and medium-sized commercial banks to tighten credit, SMEs First of all, the capital supply disruption, the risk of inviting a lot of financing, SMEs also in urgent need of funds can not be forced to stop production or the scale of downsizing. 2, bank financing channels for non-financial risks caused by fluid. Corporate sources of funds are nothing more than its own funds and external financing in two ways. In various modes of financing, the bank credit is also an important source of funds, but banks in the country's financial policies as well as their own sound system is not under the influence of such circumstances, the general enthusiasm for SME lending is not high, their loans more difficult to increase the the enterprise's financial risk.
(B) internal factors one, blind expansion of investment scale. There is a considerable number of conditions are not ripe for the SMEs in the circumstances, only the experience of one-sided pursuit of companies to determine the expansion of the extension, ignore the company's content and core competitiveness, resulting in a major capital investment wasted. 2, the investment decision-making errors. For business, the correct selection of industries are the starting point for the survival and development strategy. However, some industrial enterprises in the selection process, the often overlooked "industry is a dynamic selection process" concept, should not a keen grasp of industry trends and direction of evolution. 3, improper selection of investment partners. Enterprises to make investment decisions, we must give full consideration to qualified partners, reputation, and should have to bear the corresponding risks. 4, less than honest. Lack of SME credit is a common situation. Therefore, small and medium-sized banks to provide loans or investments to small and medium-sized people had to step up investment on human resources in order to improve the quality of information collection and analysis. This respect has increased the investment bank or person lending and investment costs. On the other hand also give small and medium enterprises financing difficult. Ability to finance capital, to finance the number of funds, the financing of SMEs exist great uncertainties.